Cai Jiao, in his book *The Iron Encircling Mountain Miscellanies*, wrote: “Tea appreciation began with the Tang Dynasty, but reached its peak during our own Song dynasty, especially during Emperor Huizong's reign, when new tea-drinking methods were developed to the utmost.” Meng Yu-lao, in *Memories of the Eastern Capital*, also recorded: “To the south of Zhuque Gate are two music academies on the east and west sides. The rest of the area is residential. There are teahouses along the street, which remain busy even at night.” This gives us a glimpse into the prosperity of Tea culture during the Song dynasty.

Let us appreciate the spiritual world and aesthetic tastes of the Song people through their porcelain tea wares, amidst the lingering fragrance of tea.

Tea Competitions and Jian Bowls

In the early Song dynasty, both the point-and-sip method and the boiling method coexisted. However, the rise of tea competitions led to the near-abandonment of the boiling method by the late Song dynasty, making the point-and-sip method the primary way of Drinking Tea. The tradition of tea competitions is believed to have originated in Fujian's Jianzhou, where farmers would evaluate the quality of new tea. During the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, “dragon cakes and phoenix teas” produced in the Beiyuan area of Jianzhou were imperial tribute teas, highly prized. Perhaps this folk activity gained popularity across the country as these tribute teas entered the imperial court and received the emperor's endorsement. Black-glazed bowls from Fujian also became well-known. Cai Xiang wrote in *Tea Record*: “Since tea is white, black bowls are best, those made in Jian'an have a deep blue-black glaze with streaks like rabbit fur. Their walls are slightly thick, so they retain heat for a long time and do not cool easily, which is most useful.” Emperor Huizong also stated in *Treatise on Tea in the Da Guan Era* that “bowls with a deep blue-black glaze and streaks like rabbit fur are superior.” During tea competitions, the foam on the surface of the tea appears white, contrasting beautifully with the black glaze of Jian bowls, and water marks formed by the foam are clearly visible. Let us now examine some representative Jian bowls. The tea wares described here are mainly from the exhibition “Elegance: Masterpieces of Southern Song Porcelain,” held at the Southern Song Imperial Kiln Museum in Hangzhou in 2010.

Song Dynasty Jian Kiln Bowl with Black Glaze and Yellow Rabbit Fur Streaks

Song Dynasty Jian Kiln Bowl with Black Glaze and Yellow Rabbit Fur Streaks; Mouth diameter 11.5 cm, base diameter 3.5 cm, height 6.4 cm. Collection of Fujian Provincial Museum. The bowl has a round lip and a slightly flared mouth. There is an inward indentation where the mouth meets the upper wall. The sides slope outward, with the upper part slightly bulging and the lower part narrowing inward. The footring is relatively narrow and shallow. The entire piece is coated with a black glaze (referred to as ‘black gold' glaze), interspersed with yellowish-brown rabbit fur streaks. This type of Jian bowl is common among excavated artifacts, and of good quality, making it a typical example of Jian ware. There are five advantages to using this type of Jian bowl for tea competitions: first, the black glaze complements the tea. “Bowls with a deep blue-black glaze and streaks like rabbit fur are superior, as they enhance the color of the tea.” Second, the thick walls retain heat. “Their walls are slightly thick, so they retain heat for a long time and do not cool easily, which is most useful.” Third, it is suitable for pouring water. Jian bowls resemble a hat brim, with water flowing down. “A deeper and slightly wider bottom makes the tea stand upright, making it easier to produce froth.” Fourth, it facilitates observation of the tea foam. In tea competitions, “the one whose tea foam dissipates first loses, while the one whose tea foam lasts longer wins.” The inward indentation below the mouth of the Jian bowl forms a pour line, preventing overfilling, and aids in froth production. Fifth, the V-shaped design is stable and dignified. When placed on a saucer, the bowl naturally rights itself, avoiding spills due to movement. Fragments of bowls with the inscription “For Imperial Use” (Figure 2) have been found at the Jian kiln site, all located in the best firing positions within the kilns. These fragments have a high survival rate and are few in number, indicating that although Jian kilns were civilian kilns, they produced imperial wares. Based on archaeological excavations and historical records, this type of Jian bowl should be the “Jian'an rabbit fur bowls” most favored by Song emperors and literati.

Bowl Bottom Fragment with Inscription “For Imperial Use”

Song Dynasty Jian Kiln Bowl with Black Glaze and Rabbit Fur Pattern

Song Dynasty Jian Kiln Bowl with Black Glaze and Rabbit Fur Pattern; Mouth diameter 11 cm, base diameter 3.5 cm, height 6 cm. Collection of the Palace Museum. According to Zhu Yan's *On Ceramics*, “During the Song dynasty, people preferred wide-rimmed bowls for tea.” Similarly, Cao Zhao's *Essential Points of Antiquity* states, “Jian ware comes from Fujian, and its bowls and cups often have wide-rimmed mouths.” Archaeological excavations at the Jian kiln site have uncovered many wide-rimmed bowls, indicating that they were a common shape in Song Jian ware. These bowls have a flared mouth resembling a trumpet, with a slightly curved lip, sloping sides, and a shallow footring. They are shaped like a funnel, which not only facilitated viewing and judging during tea competitions but also allowed the aroma of the tea to spread effectively, demonstrating practical scientific considerations. Additionally, the flared mouth makes it easy to drink and taste the tea, a thoughtful human-centered design.

Song Dynasty Jian Kiln Bowl with Black Glaze and Rabbit Fur Pattern; Mouth diameter 18 cm, base diameter 5 cm, height 7.5 cm. Collection of the Palace Museum.

Song Dynasty Jian Kiln Bowl with Rabbit Fur Pattern; Mouth diameter 12.5 cm, base diameter 3.8 cm, height 5 cm. Collection of Fujian Provincial Museum.

*Treatise on Tea in the Da Guan Era* states: “However, you must adjust the size of the lid according to the amount of tea used. If the bowl is too high and there is too little tea, the color of the tea will be obscured. If there is too much tea and the lid is too small, the tea will overflow…” This indicates that even if Jian bowls share a similar shape, there are still differences in size and form. The size of the tea bowl is not determined solely by the amount of tea used, but also influenced by factors such as the number of spectators, the quality of the tea cake, the effect of tea distribution, the speed and volume of water poured, etc. Figures 4 and 5 show larger tea bowls that are essentially the same in shape as the previous two Jian bowls, differing only in size. This suggests that tea competitions in the Song dynasty were diverse, sometimes requiring different-sized bowls, known as “matching bowls” or “series of lids.”

When the emperor promoted something, the people would surely follow. After the mid-Northern Song dynasty, the custom of tea competitions spread from the imperial court to the common people, reaching its peak during the Southern Song dynasty. Driven by